Sanctuary of Athena Lindia at Lindus
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The Sanctuary of Athena Lindia (Click the image for a full screen view) |
The History of the Excavations
The excavations at the Acropolis of Lindus were begun systematically by the Danish archaeologists K.F. Kinch and Chr. Blinkengerg. Their results were published in six volumes published by the «Foundation Carlsberg» of Denmark. The first two volumes (1931) deal with the objects, the next two (1941) with inscriptions. All four are written by Blinkenberg. The architecture was published much later, in 1960, in two volumes, by E. Dyggve who disagrees with many of the conclusions drawn by Blinkenberg.
In 1910-1916 and 1929-1932 the Italian archaeologists Maiuri and Jacopi worked on the site. It should be noted that the island was under Italian occupation at the time, and the Italians took an interest in the antiquities. They are responsible for the restoration of the antiquities of Lindus which contribute to the popularity of the site today.
The Cult of Lindus
The word Lindia (of Lindus), which is a constant epithet of the Goddess, is of non-Greek origin etymologically. Therefore, it seems that a cult existed in Lindus long before the Greeks, perhaps even before the Mycenaeans, who were Greek-speaking. When the Dorians brought their Goddess Athena with them, she was assimilated with the older Goddess, a phenomenon which is very common in the history of religion. For example, Athena of antiquity has now been assimilated to Virgin Mary (Panaghia), whose church is to be seen in the village. According to Dyggve, even the Temple of Athena Lindia was turned into a church of Virgin Mary in the Christian era.
Apart from the name, another detail points to an older, pre-existing cult in Lindus before Athena's arrival. This detail comes from a poem by the 5th cent. BCE poet Pindar, who gives the following mythical account of the establishment of Athena's cult: Zeus had a terrible head-ache and asked Hephaestus to split his head. Hephaestus struck with a brazen hatchet and Athena leapt forth from her father's head and cried aloud with a mighty shout, while Heaven and Mother Earth, trembled before her. Then the Sun God, who brings light to men, asked his dear children to be the first to build an altar for the new Goddess and, by founding a holy sacrifice, to gladden the heart of the father and daughter. But sometimes mortals are driven from the right path, and they forgot to take fire with them. So they performed the sacred rite without fire in the grove of the Acropolis... (Olympian VII, 35-49).
This is clearly a myth designed to explain a ritual, namely the custom of performing fireless rites in connection with the cult of Athena Lindia. This deviated from standard Greek practice, which demanded fire on the altar and burning of the entrails of the sacrificial victims. This deviation from standard practice can be explained, if the cult of Athena was assimilated to an older cult.
Blinkenberg suggested that no sacrifice was performed at all in the Sanctuary, and that only fruits of the earth, bloodless offerings, were made. He also stressed that there was no altar. He concluded that the prehistoric Goddess, venerated before Athena, was a vegetation Goddess, who did not require animal sacrifice.
Blinkenberg's hypothesis has found general acceptance, but it may need modification. First, Dyggve identified architectural evidence of an altar. Second and most important, there is archaeological evidence of animal bones and ashes from the temenus (enclosure) area outside the Temple. Third, votive animal figurines, as well as figurines of men carrying animals, have been found. All this suggests that animals were sacrificed. Blinkenberg himself was puzzled by the remnants of animal bones and ashes, but he explained them as remnants of sacred banquets, which took place in connection with the cult. This makes sense, but it is difficult to accept that the killing and cooking of the animals was a ceremony quite separate from the offering ritual.
What is the solution? Can Pindar's testimony be ignored? Perhaps a close reading of the text will give a clue. Pindar says that the sons of the Sun God forgot to take fire with them. Their intention, however, was to perform sacrifice, and Pindar does not say that they did not perform it; he says that they performed rites without fire. Perhaps the solution is that they performed the sacrifice and ate the meat but did not burn the entrails. This would deviate from standard Greek practice (for sacrificial ritual, see further on) but would allow the killing of the animal and the eating of the meat by the participants, a practice which had a very important social function. This is only a hypothesis, but it reconciles the Pindaric account with the archaeological evidence.
A different solution has been suggested, Pindar's poem does not refer to Lindus at all but some other city on Rhodes. The wording of the lines, however, do not support this supposition. Pindar mentions other cities, but Lindus is mentioned last and the next line begins with «there it is that...». Thus, the Pindaric account has to be taken as serious evidence for the cult, whatever interpretation we give to it.
The Temple Chronicle and the Epiphanies of the Goddess
In the area of Hagios Stephanos (see map), a marble stele was found with valuable inscription concerning the history of the Temple and with a list of offerings through the ages. This is the Temple Chronicle, composed in the 1st cent. BCE. It was compiled by a certain Timachidas, and its purpose was to advertise the wealth and importance of the Sanctuary.
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Map of Lindus' area, the bays, the Acropolis, the monuments and the
village (Click the image for a full screen view) |
For us it is valuable as a source of religious belief in the Hellenistic period and as a historical source. Among the most interesting accounts of the Temple Chronicle are the Epiphanies (appearances) of Athena to mortals.
Although Athena can appear in person in the Homeric poems, in the historical period she appeared in men's dreams. Such forms of epiphany were common in antiquity, and some Greek sanctuaries, like that of Asclepius at Epidaurus, had special arrangements for people to sleep in the hope that the God would visit them at night.
One epiphany of Athena occurred at the time of the Persian invasion in 490 BCE:
"When Darius, King of Persia, sent forth a great army for the purpose of enslaving Hellas, this island was the first which his fleet visited. The people in the country were terrified at the approach of the Persians and fled for safety to all the strongholds, most of them gathering at Lindus. Thereupon the barbarians set about to besiege them, until the Lindians, sore-pressed by a water shortage, were minded to hand over the city to the enemy. Right at this juncture the Goddess stood over one of the magistrates in his sleep and bade him be of good courage, since she herself would procure, by intercession with her father, the water they needed. The one who saw the vision rehearsed to the citizens Athena's command. So they investigated and found that they had only enough water to last for five days, and accordingly they asked the barbarians for a truce for just that number of days, saying that Athena had sent to her father for help, and that if help did not come in the specified time, they would surrender the city. When Datis, the admiral of Darius, heard this request, he immediately burst out laughing. But the next day, when a great cloud gathered about the Acropolis and a heavy shower fell inside the cloud, so that contrary to all expectations (paradoxos) the besieged had plenty of water, while the Persian army suffered for lack of it, the barbarian was struck by the epiphany of the Goddess. He took off his personal adornment and sent it as an offering -- his mantle, his necklace, and his bracelets, and in addition his tiara, his scimitar, and even his chariot, which formerly was preserved here, but was burned along with most of the offerings when the priest of Helios was Eucles, son of Astyanactidas (probably soon after 350 BCE), when the Temple caught fire. As for Datis, he set forth on the business before him, after establishing peace with the besieged and declaring publicly, "These men are protected by the Gods".
(From F.G. Grant, Hellenistic Religions, New York 1953)
In this account Athena lives up to her reputation as a protectress of her city.
The History of the Temple and the Cult Image
Blinkenberg reconstructs the history of the Temple as follows. At first there was no Temple structure at all, only a grove to which Pindar refers also. The first structure may have been built in the 6th cent. BCE. We do not know this; we can infer it only by analogy from other sites.
A better Temple must have been built by the tyrant Cleobulus (Kleoboulos) in the 6th cent. BCE. He may also have strengthened the cult of the Goddess, as other tyrants did with local Gods of their city-states, in an attempt to foster national religious feeling. We know that Peisistratus strengthened the cult of Athena at Athens and Polycrates built a magnificent Temple to Hera on Samos. Tyrants had also another reason for building Temples: They absorbed the unemployed. The promotion of national religion strengthened the political base of the tyrant's power.
The cult image of this Temple has naturally been lost, but Blinkenberg reconstructs it as a seated figure with a special hat (polos) wearing necklaces and other jewelry. He infers that from votive figurines of terra-cotta found in the Sanctuary of a colony of Lindus which may reproduce the statue.
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Figurine possibly representing Athena Lindia (Click the image for a full screen view) |
At the time of Cleobulus there was also an impressive stairway, 7.5 m. broad, which led up to the Temple and was used for processions. This stairway went through an enclosure wall which marked off the temenus from the rest of the Acropolis. The first built altar was probably erected then. An interesting detail: the Cleobulus Temple was built above a natural cave in the cliff, which cave must have been a cult place in prehistoric times. It was perhaps the cave which dictated the choice of spot for the Temple at the very edge of the cliff. In Byzantine times, this cave was used for the worship of Virgin Mary.
4th Cent. BCE
Around 342 BCE, the Cleobulus Temple was burned, and a new one was built in its place in the end of the 4th cent. BCE or around 300 BCE. The whole temenus area was later reorganized, the most important addition being the Propylaea, an elaborate gate-structure leading to the temenus.
The new Temple was in the Doric order. It had three rooms and two rows of four columns, along the short sides. (The terminus technicus is amphiprostylos). Its dimensions were 7.75 x 21.65 m.
A new cult image was created for the new Temple, the type of which we can infer, once more, from votive terra-cotta figurines. The Goddess was represented standing and carrying a shield, and the statue almost certainly reflects Pheidian style and the Athena of the Parthenon at Athens. But on her head she did not wear a helmet, like the Athenian one, but a polos hat, like that of the older cult image. An inscription makes some reference to jewelry, so it is quite possible that this image also was ornated with pectorals and necklaces. The Temple Chronicle of Lindus gives us some additional information. The statue was fastened against the short wall of the cella, thus facing the spectator as he entered from the door. Why was it fastened? Perhaps it was necessary to secure it in position if it were too big to balance itself effectively on its own weight, especially since there was always fear of earthquakes. It must have been over life-size. The materials could have been wood for the main body and ivory for the extremities, feet, arms, head. The Lindians could not have afforded a gold and ivory statue as the Athenians did.
The fame of the Temple can be deduced from the fact that Alexander the Great and many of his successors offered magnificent sacrifices there, and dedicated weapons after victories. It can also be inferred from the quality of votive gifts, many of which were famous in antiquity and are mentioned in the Temple Chronicle. The sculptor Boethus, the painter Parrhasios of Ephesus and other great artists had their works exhibited in the Sanctuary.
The Propylaea (Gate)
The Propylaea were built in the first half of the 3rd cent. BCE. and this involved a radical change in the appearance of the Sanctuary. Before, the temenus was marked off by a low wall, now this low wall was replaced by the monumental facade of the Propylaea to which a very broad stairway gave access.
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Reconstruction of the Propylaea after Dyggve (Click the image for a full screen view) |
The Propylaea were in the Doric order and were U-shaped. The emphasis was on the wings, which looked like the facades of the Temple. In this way the Temple facade is anticipated before the visitor enters the temenus. The arrangement was designed to direct the visitor through a series of surprises and changing views and to prepare him for a crescendo upon reaching the temenus. We must imagine that the view changed constantly with gradual ascent by the staircase. When the visitor reached the top, he had to pass through a hall, which was bordered by columns on the long sides. He was then confronted with a spectacular panoramic view on the one hand, on the other he could see the Temple against this view. The Temple was off the main axis, but the altar stood in the center of the temenus. This was the sacrificial altar, identified by Dyggve. Another one, smaller, and destined for bloodless offerings, was placed inside the Temple in front of the cult image.
The Propylaea were asymmetrical, but this could be seen only from the inside; from the outside they gave the illusion of complete symmetry. The rooms of the wings were designed for banqueting which followed the sacrifice and for display of the most spectacular votive offerings, the greatest works of art. But the main function of the whole structure was to isolate the temenus and to screen off unpurified visitors.
The following prohibitions were effective regarding entrance to the Sanctuary: Carrying weapons was prohibited. One had to be decently dressed with the head covered. One had to be barefoot or else wear white shoes, which could not be made out of horse's skin. You could not enter at all immediately after loss of virginity; after an abortion; during menstruation; after you had come into contact with a dead body; after intercourse, unless a purification bath had taken place, etc. These instructions shed light on the notions of impurity of the ancients.
The Portico or Stoa
The Hellenistic period was one of artistic exaggeration. If the early art of the Greeks is characterized by modesty and simplicity, the late art and architecture, during the Hellenistic period, delights in dramatic effect. We can seen this in sculpture and it is valid for architecture as well. By the end of the 3rd cent. BCE, the monumental Propylaea were no longer considered magnificent enough in themselves, and another structure had to be added to enhance dramatic effect. This structure was a Doric portico or stoa which duplicated the facade of the Propylaea but on a much larger scale.
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Reconstruction of the Doric Portico or Stoa. Reconstruction after Dyggve. (Click the image for a full screen view) |
The main difference in plan was the complete symmetry of the Portico. The element of surprise, which was the principle of the architects of the Propylaea, was repeated here as well. Most important must have been the interplay of light and shade, as one passed from the staircase to the columns of the central part. The center of the long side of the Portico was cut by the stairway which led up to the Propylaea. In a way the Portico was built as an entrance to this stairway, just as the Propylaea were built as an entrance to the temenus. The experience was thus repeated twice, and the visitor's expectations were rising with each ascent.
It is with purpose that the wings of the Portico reproduce the facade of the Temple, as was the case in the Propylaea. The Temple was, after all, the emblem of the Sanctuary and the culmination of the experience.
The function of the Portico was more secular. It was outside the temenus and served as an art gallery and as a shady area, much needed during the hot summer days.
Later Structures
Later additions destroyed rather than enhanced the effect. The terrace was enlarged in the 1st cent. BCE. Beneath this terrace there were 10 vaulted cisterns for the collection of water. In the 2nd cent. CE an Ionic portico was added in the temenus area, thus blocking the dramatic landscape which acted as a backdrop to the temenus. Finally, the view from the other side of the acropolis was blocked by the erection of a Roman Temple in the 3rd cent. CE, presumably for the cult of a deified emperor. Some think it was for the cult of the hero Psithyros.
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Acropolis reconstruction with later structures (Click the image for a full screen view) |
Votive Offerings
In our times, it is often the case that votives are placed on an icon of the Greek Orthodox Church as tokens of gratitude for a difficulty or illness which has been overcome. These offerings are jewelry or silver/gold limbs representing the healed parts of the body: Ancient offerings were even more varied. Their value depended on the economic status of the dedicator. They could range from large-scale sculptures in stone, or bronze, to small figurines. They could be jewelry, vases, weapons, and objects of every-day use such as mirrors and spindle whirls. Most often they had the form of terra-cotta figurines representing humans or animals. Sometimes the cult image of the divinity was represented, but more frequently it was the mortal who presented himself as an worshiper and servant to the God.
In the Sanctuary of Athena Lindia figurines of musicians, horsemen, men carrying animals (for sacrifice) have been found, representing different categories of worshippers. It is female figurines that predominate, however, because of Athena's special relationship with women as a protectress of the household. Mothers holding a child are frequently represented; they were placing the child under the protection of Athena. A special type is the seated boy, which is attested also in Cyprus. Were these boys rendering services to the Temple for a period and do the figurines symbolize this? If so, we have an Oriental custom here. There is also a type of male figurine reclining and holding a drinking vessel. This must allude to the sacrificial banqueting which took place in the rooms of the Propylaea. Exotic animals like lions as well as birds and cats are suggestive of the power of Athena over nature. There are also objects brought from abroad, gifts from foreigners who visited the Sanctuary. Egyptian, Near Eastern and Cypriot objects are attested in significant quantities. A final category of objects represents cult implements: lamps and torches used in processions, baskets which would be filled with fruit and offered, wine jars and drinking cups which are related to the feasting.
Clickable Plan
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Clickable Plan of Athena Lindia Shrine A: Temple. B: Propylaea. C: Stoa. D: Altar. E: Roman Temple. (Click the image for a full screen view) |
GALLERY
Lindus map. |
Lindus Acropolis and town from NW. |
Lindus Acropolis from SE. |
Lindus Acropolis from NW with Theater from the 4th cent. BCE.
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Lindus Acropolis from NW at sunset. |
Lindus Acropolis reconstruction. |
Acropolis reconstruction with later structures. |
Clickable Plan of Athena Lindia Shrine. |
Reconstruction of the Doric Stoa after Dyggve. |
Stoa East from NE. |
Stoa center from NE. |
Stoa East from N. |
Stoa East from E. |
Stoa East from SW. |
Stoa East from SE (far). |
Stoa East from SE. |
Stoa East from SE. |
Stoa center from NE. |
Stoa center from W. |
Stoa center from NE. |
Stoa center from S. |
Stoa West from N. |
Stoa West from NE. |
Stoa West from S. |
Actual state of the Hellenistic Stoa after recent work.
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Ancient structures from NW. |
Reconstruction of the Propylaea after Dyggve. |
Propylaea center from N. |
Propylaea East from NE. |
Propylaea West from N. |
Temenos from N. |
Temenos from N. |
Temenos from NW.
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Temple from E. |
Temple from NE. |
Temple from E. |
Temple from NE. |
Temple from N. |
Temple works from NE. |
Temple works from N. |
Temple works on E wall from N. |
Temple works from W. |
Temple works on E wall from W. |
Temple from SW. |
Temple from SW. |
Temple from S. |
Ceiling fragment on the SW side of the Temple from NW. |
Figurine possibly representing Athena Lindia. |
Acropolis and Cave from SE. |
Acropolis and Cave from SE. |
Temple and Cave from SE. |
Temple and Cave from S. |
Tourist Information
Lindus lies 55 km to the S. of the city of Rhodes and is accessible by bus or even by small boats during the summer season. The trip by car takes a little less than an hour and the road is very good. For this reason one can even rent a car and drive without being apprehensive about the possible mis-fortunes due to the conditions of some Greek roads.
When you come close to Lindus, there is a long beach, Vlecha (Vlycha), to your left or N. of the Acropolis which towers over the landscape. On this beach, there exists the four major hotels of Lindus: Lindos Bay Hotel, Lindos Royal Hotel, LTI Lindos Royal and Lindos Mare Hotel. Otherwise, accommodations can be found in the village: there are rooms to let in pensions or private houses.
The bus, or car, has to stop in the square of the village; from there one has to go on foot because the village streets are too narrow. The square is well equipped for the tourist: you can buy film, souvenirs, refreshments, and there are restaurants as well.
Other Views
- Aerial view of Acropolis, from NW
- Aerial view of Acropolis and cliff, from SE
- Overall view of Lindus from N
- Overall view of Lindus, beach, and Acropolis from N
- Overall view of Acropolis and modern Lindus from N
- Overall view of Lindus from W
- View of peninsula at Lindus from W
- View of peninsula at Lindus from N
See also
- Timeline: Greek period, Hellenistic period.
- Athena Museum Sculptures: Athena Lindia.
- Perseus Encyclopedia: Lindus
- Hellenic Ministry of Culture: Lindus Acropolis.
Source
Location
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